Why Is Nubia Unknown Essays - Nubia, Meroitic Alphabet, Alodia

Why Is Nubia Unknown? Nubian civalization lasted 4400 years so why is it unkown? There are several reasons some of wich include. The most significant reason is simple predijice. Another reason is it's isolation. Also we have yet to decipher Nubia's writing. Finnally many of the records we have of Nubia were written by it's enemys. It is almost always the conquerers who write the history. As a result many of the ancient records place Nubia in an unfair light, and are not very trustworthy sources. We know Nubian writing, developed in Mero sometime around 170 BCE, is alphabetic. We even know the sound values for each of the letters. However scholars are still unable to decipher the language. Nubia is very isolated geographicly. It is surounded by deadly desert. Cateracts block travle along the Nile river. Its only neighboring civalization is Egyt. Because of this isolation little was known of Nubia in anceint times, except fantastic legends of gold and wealth. By far the greatest reason for are lack of knowledge of Nubian civalization is simple pedjudice. As far back a Greek times the ?black? race has been seen as infieror, and thus unworthy of the attention of historians. Indeed there is little mention of Nubia in the written records of western civalization from the time it was Cristianized in the 6th century till the 19th. Because of this predjidce scholars regarded Nubian civalization as inferior, derived almost completly from the (?white?) Egyptian culture. This lead to claims as far fetched as (?white?) Libian decended kings ruling Nubia. The only reason Nubia began to get some atention by scholars was when dams threatened to flood unexcavated sites forever. Still as late as 1960 only one Americain scholar was working in Nubian study. Thankfully this trend is changing, and we are begining to get a more accurate, less predjudiced History

Organization behavior

Organization behavior Introduction Marketers all over the world rely upon their understanding of the consumer decision-making process to be successful in their day-to-day practices. Consumer behaviour captures all the activities of consumers that range from searching of the suitable products or services, their utility, all the way to the disposal of such products or services. Different scholars have developed models, strategies and theories that seek to clarify the consumer decision-making process.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Organization behavior Consumer decision-making is a process specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Marketers rely upon the knowledge of this process in their identification of the most effective points of entry to influence the choices and decisions made by the various consumers to their advantage (Bettman et al. 1998, p.195). Since it is common knowledge that the consumer decision-making is a series of steps that con stitute the whole process, the knowledge of what comprises each of the steps, as presented by the different models, is vital for any marketer seeking to be successful in marketing either products or services. The marketer takes the responsibility of a guide to the consumer. Therefore, he/ she should be able to provide a good share of information about the effect of the decision that the consumer makes (Bilkey 2010, p. 20). Successful dissemination of correct information about the important attributes of a given product, as well as its advantages in comparison to those offered by the competitors, is important in making sales and maintaining a clientele base. This paper aims at analysing the consumer decision-making process determining why it is necessary for marketers to understand the process in details to secure sales and maintain a satisfied client base. The consumer decision-making process There are a number of models put in place by marketers to explain the consumers’ dec ision-making process. The most common model is an adaption of the scientific method, which comprises of five basic steps. For the purposes of marketing, research, as well as understanding the buying patterns of different consumer segments, it is important for marketers to understand what each of the steps contain, which leads into each other (Doney, Cannon 2008, p.35). The claim holds because each of the steps corresponds to an internal psychological process that should be understood by every marketer whose aim is to lead the pack when it comes to securing product and services sales. The consumer decision-making process and the corresponding internal psychological processes are as follows:Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Need recognition – Motivation The need recognition is the initial step in the consumer decision-making process. This usually takes place w hen a given consumer realises the existence of a given need. As a result, he/she is motivated to venture into the decision-making process to see that the need is resolved (Bettman 1999, p.45). It is important for any marketer to have a deep understanding of what the consumer undergoes in this particular level in the decision-making process, as well as the specific needs that they seek to satisfy to translate them into the purchase criteria. The information that marketers get at this point of the process is critical in that it allows them to portray the most-felt need of the consumer in the promotional messages (Arzen 2005, p.209). Need recognition might be a simple process in the consumer decision-making process. However, the manner in which the consumer perceives any purchase situation and is subsequently motivated to resolve it becomes very influential to the remaining steps in the decision-making process. To understand deeply the reasons behind a given consumer’s purchases , marketers should devote a lot of their time in understanding the motives – the factor that compel the consumer to opt for a particular option. Need recognition might take place because of a change in the current or desired consumer’s state. Both internal and external factors might be responsible for these causes. For a marketer to align himself/herself with the most-felt need of the consumer, he or she must invest a great deal of effort to understand the factors that result to the consumer’s need recognition. These factors include, but not limited to the following: a. Out of stock When consumers exhaust their existing supplies, need recognition often occurs, as there is the need to replenish their stock (Ajzen, Fishbein 1980, p.5). The understanding of this factor ensures that a given marketer keeps the consumer constantly supplied with the brands that they are familiar with or those to which they feel loyal.Advertising We will write a custom essay sa mple on Organization behavior Consumer decision-making is a process specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More b. Dissatisfaction When a product, service, or a current situation does not satisfy a consumer, need recognition is created. For instance, the consumer might feel that a given product that they are used to is not comfortable anymore. Therefore, he/she sets out to get a more comfortable option that will ensure that they feel comfortable and satisfied. Through advertising, marketers can ensure that consumers are able to recognise when they are dissatisfied and when they need to make a purchase. c. New needs/ wants The lifestyles of people keep on changing drastically. With them, new needs or wants are created. A change in the day-to-day operations of a given person might result in the creation of new needs or wants. These become even more important than the previously existing ones. Through a constant market research, marketers are capable of recognising whenever new needs or wants are created by consumers to know exactly when to get involved in the process (Ajzen, Fishbein 1980, p.16). Information search- perception Once consumers are sure that their need can be satisfied through making a purchase, they embark on a journey to search for useful information that will enable them make the right decisions. The search usually begins with a scan of the consumer’s memory to recall whether there is any useful information from their experiences. According to Doney and Cannon (2008, p.41), this is termed as an internal search. If there is not any relevant or useful information, the consumer goes to the extent of conducting an external search (Bilkey 2010, p. 23). The knowledge of how the consumer gets and utilises information especially from the external sources is very important to the marketers. This is what is regarded as perception. External sources include but are not limited to a. Personal sourcesAdvertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These include friends, relatives, and coworkers and so on. A consumer usually opts to get help in making the right purchase decision first from the people that are around him/ her. At this point, it is hard for the marketer to recognise and seize the opportunity unless they fortunately fall under that category. b. Marketer controlled sources These include information from advertisements, salespeople, displays or even the internet. It is through conducting effective market research that marketers are able to provide the information before their competitors and secure a chance to make a sale. c. Public sources Public sources that include information from media channels such as televisions, radios, print media such as magazine articles and newspapers provide information to consumers when preparing to make a purchase. Marketers often target the media to provide the information that influences the consumers’ purchase decision-making process. Alternative evaluation – Attitud e After acquiring the relevant and helpful information that will enable them to make the right purchase decision, the consumers move on to the alternative evaluation stage. It is in this particular stage that the consumers make a comparison of the various product brands that they have previously identified to ensure that they settled only for what ensures their needs or wants are catered for. The ultimate goal of most advertisement projects is to ensure that their product is involved in what is termed as the â€Å"evoked set†, which is a subset of brands that the consumer chooses as purchase options (Kohli 2009, p.61). Through effective advertisement, marketers create a â€Å"top –of –mind awareness† (Bettman 1999, p.23) to consumers to ensure that their products are not left out. While marketers tend to think of their products as â€Å"bundles of attributes†, the consumers view them as â€Å"bundles of benefits† according to their consequen ces. In the discipline of consumer behavior, attitude is one of the concepts that is heavily studied (Bettman 1999, p.23). Recent perspectives by scholars view attitudes as â€Å"a summary construct that represents an individual’s overall feelings towards or the evaluation of a product† (Kohli 2009, p. 63). Consumers express attitudes, which are of key importance to the marketers since, though them, they summarize their evaluation of a given item (brand or company) and make a representation of the positive or negative behavior tendencies (Ajzen, Fishbein 1980, p. 12). The various attitudes are related to the purchasing choices. That is why they are of great benefit to any marketer. Purchase decision- Integration In the process, when the consumers feel satisfied with the options that they have taken, they end up making a purchase decision. Under the inspiration of the alternative evaluation stage, the consumer may end up developing a purchase intention (Moorman et al. 2003, p.90). This is the predisposition to purchase a given brand. All the other personal sub-processes such as motivation and attitude formation influence the formation of the purchase intention and so on. However, one should note that the purchase decision is completely different from the actual purchase. This provides the chance for those marketers whose brands have not been chosen by the consumer for one reason or the other to attempt influencing the actual purchase, which is the most important part (Williamson 2000, p.466). Key to this stage is the manner in which consumers combine the information that they have about the characteristics of the brands that they had sampled in the evaluation stage (Lerner, Tiedens 2006, p.126). Through the analysis of this process, marketers become aware of the different decision rules or strategies that a number of consumers apply while making their ultimate decision. At this point, marketers should seek to know exactly which attributes appeal more to consumers to provide them with the relevant information, which works to their advantage. Post purchase evaluation- satisfaction The final stage of the consumer decision-making process is not the purchase but the post-purchase evaluation. After a consumer consumes a given product, he or she goes ahead to assess the utility or the performance of the product according to how it satisfactorily suits their needs. This stage is useful to marketers considering that the feedback gathered at this stage will definitely influence the consumers’ purchase decisions in the future (Williamson 2000, p. 472). When consumers are not satisfied with a given brand that they have purchased, they end up forming negative attitudes towards it. This can even make them influence other people in their purchase decisions. When the consumer’s goal is achieved, this means, the expectations have been met or have been exceeded by the consumption of the given brand (Kohli 2009, p. 64). This me ans that the consumer will not hesitate in the future to purchase the same brand for a similar need or a related one. When a given brand satisfies a consumer, it does not mean that the marketer should feel aware, as the competitors are constantly devising ways to secure future sales. Conclusion Knowledge of the consumer decision-making process is very important to marketers in that, in every stage of the process, as described in the basic model, the marketers should be constantly involved to ensure that they influence the decisions made by the consumer. All the way from the need recognition stage of the process, the marketer should understand the dilemmas faced by the consumer in the effort of making the right decision. This knowledge provides them with the relevant knowledge on the entry points that will have the biggest impact when it comes to securing the sales (Williamson 2000, p.484). Effective understanding of the entire process not only ensures that sales are secured, but als o that the consumers remain loyal to their brands. References Ajzen, I Fishbein, M 1980, Understanding Attitude and Predicting Social Behaviour. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Arzen, E 2005, ‘The theory of planned behaviour’, Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, vol. 50 no. 1, pp. 179-211. Bettman, J 1999, An information processing theory of consumer choice. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Bettman, J, Luce, M, Payne, J 1998, ‘Constructive consumer choice processes’, The  Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 25 no. 1, pp. 187–217. Bilkey, W.J., 2010. A psychological approach to consumer behavior analysis. Journal of  Marketing, 18, pp.18-25. Doney, P Cannon, J 2008, ‘An examination of the nature of trust in buyer-seller Relationships’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 61 no. 2, pp. 35-51. Kohli, A 2009, ‘Determinants of influence in organisational buying: a contingency approach’, Journal of Marketing , vol. 53 no. 1, pp. 50-65. Lerner, J Tiedens, L 2006, ‘Portrait of the angry decision maker: How appraisal tendencies shape angers influence on cognition’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, vol. 19 no. 1, pp. 115–137. Moorman, C, Deshpande, R, Zaltman, G 2003, ‘Factors affecting trust in market research relationships’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 57 no.1, pp. 81-101. Williamson, O 2000, ‘Calculativeness, trust, and economic organisation’, Journal of Law and Economics, vol. 36 no. 1, pp. 453-486.

The Edge of Land Law Lies Proprietary Estoppel Essay

The Edge of Land Law Lies Proprietary Estoppel - Essay Example As the paper highlights that the court ultimately determines whether it is conscionable for the owner of the land to go back on their representations. Unlike other estoppels, proprietary estoppel goes further and can be utilised as a tool to enforce or grant a property right de facto. Moreover, proprietary interest in land may be acquired in equity under estoppel without the need for writing and Cooke comments that â€Å"the courts have consistently, with very few exceptions, protected the claimant’s exceptions in interest when responding to estoppel, and protect individuals so far as it is possible and that they should continue to do so†. This study outlines that whilst the equitable justification for the doctrine of proprietary estoppel is clearly meritorious, the ad hoc development of the doctrine has been attacked, with some commentators labelling it as a â€Å"loose cannon†. The focus of this analyse is to critically evaluate the doctrine of proprietary estoppel and consider whether it has as the above statement become nothing more than an â€Å"amalgam of ideas rather than a deliberately constructed doctrine† in contemporary land law. The doctrine of proprietary estoppel was first recognised by the House of Lords in Ramsden v Dyson5, which involved a yearly tenant who had been led to believe that the landlord would grant him a 60 year lease on the property. On this basis, the plaintiff erected a building on the land, however the landlord refused to grant him the lease. The tenant brought a claim to enforce his rights in equity.  

A Study on the Effect of De-Selection on Elite Youth Footballers Essay

A Study on the Effect of De-Selection on Elite Youth Footballers - Essay Example The entrants to the scholarship program were from the best players between age 16 and 19. Each of the participants performed two interviews. Each interview averaged a time of sixty minutes. The interviews were conducted in locations of their choice. The interviews did not follow a tight schedule; instead, they were reflexive with provisional themes prepared moments before the interviews. The role of the interviewer was to enable the interviewee to narrate his tale in his own manner. Thus, the interviewer was an active listener. The interviewer stored each interview in an audiotape and transcribed before another interview took place. The interviewer pursued emerging issues in the next interview. After the accumulation of the data, the researchers analyzed it by reading the transcripts with the view of identifying narrative segments and themes in the transcripts. They then followed this with writing analytical memos to provide links to common themes. The researchers followed these iden tical concepts in the next meeting. From the data obtained, the researchers were able to reconstruct the lives of the correspondents before and after their de-selection. The methodology used and justification for its use. ... 572). In the interpretive biography, researchers begin by finding written documents and other records. Some may be of a quantitative nature, but it is relevant if it helps describe a person’s life. Nevertheless, the main material in this research emanates from the numerous interviews the researcher has with the respondent. Of most interest, are events that led to a remarkable change in the respondent’s life. The researcher may want to visit the actual place where the event occurred. After this, the researcher tries to decipher the meaning of those events in the respondent’s life. The researcher may rely on his impression about the event. The interpretive biography method involves the use and acquisition of documents pertaining to a subject’s; personal life, accounts and narratives that elucidate on significant milestones in a person’s life. The central focus of the interpretive biography method is a person’s life experiences (Lewiss-Beck & Br yman 2004, p. 507). The use of the biographical method has its basis on the argument that, those who lived are the only ones who can know their lives. Alternatively, through their representations, which include stories and personal narratives among others. The meaning of these events is only visible in the performances of those who lived those lives. According to Thomas Murray 2003, researchers design biographies to serve several functions. One of the purposes is to preserve a record of a prominent person’s development and contributions. Another purpose is to correct mistaken identities. It can also serve to teach readers lessons through another person’s life or to trace public and private actions of the subject in view of finding

Linux Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Linux - Assignment Example Enterprise version of Red Hat supports both server and workstation systems, which eradicates the compatibility issues that could have occurred if other versions may have used. Various different flavors of Red Hat make it beneficial, which can be purchased depending on the services that are required. For a full working IT department in an organization a simple version of customer support can be also be purchased for reducing cost. A complete version of support is also available upon requirement. When it comes to reliability, Red Hat Linux is considered to be the most stable and reliable Operating System. (Negus, & Boronczyk, 2008, p. 191-192)The main disadvantage of using Red Hat is that it is not free. Even downloadable version also involves cost and also subsequent support services. There are various versions different versions of Red Hat are available in the market. These version can be purchased directly from Red Hat Inc or through there distributors. They are as follows: Workstat ions Specifications Basic Workstation Dual CPU supports, memory support is unlimited, no virtualization available Multi OS Workstation Dual CPUs, unlimited memory, and virtualization available Server Specifications Red Hat Enterprise Linux Dual CPU server supports. Available for both 32bit and 64 bit architecture. Support available in three forms basic, standard and premium Has four virtual guests support Its advance version support server of all sizes along with unlimited virtual guests and storage Community Enterprise Operating System (CentOS) CentOS was developed by CentOS project community using the source code of commercial Linux (Red Hat). (Baclit,  2009, p.  xxi-xxii) The purpose behind this development was to provide a free and stable version of commercial Linux distribution and also to keep up with the requirements of an Enterprise. CentOS enabled the Enterprise standard Linux for general public without requiring purchasing it or signing a service contract. CentOS have pre-installed GUI interfaces GNOME and KDE, which makes it easier for the user to use this system. For avoiding legal issues CentOS doesn’t included DVD player software in it which can be termed as its drawback, but users can install a DVD payer through internet if required. It is most popular distribution of Linux used for web servers today. (Membrey, Verhoeven, & Angenendt, 2009, p. xx-xx) Reliability, low cost and ease of use are major factors for its popularity. CentOS do not require different license for each machine as compared to Microsoft Windows products. Once loaded on disk, then can be installed on as many servers or workstation as the user required, allows greater compatibility between both without any major performance issues. Online blogs, forums and websites are general support for CentOS. Feedbacks around globe shows that people using CentOS as workstation or server had never faced any serious issue. Several people who have used this distribution reported that no serious issue has been faced in both of its form i.e. workstation and server. Novell Novell is a known Linux leader; its distribution is formally known as openSUSE. Major advantage this OS has is its relatively bug free distribution. During development, lots of concentration is given to compatibility and functionalities between openSUSE and programs that will interface is it. (McCallister,  2006, p.  255-256) OpenSUSE is considered as a bit difficult to be installed. But

Feminist Theories on Rape

Feminist Theories on Rape Feminist theory provides more than just a discourse on the interactions of the male and female, within the public and private sphere. In fact feminist theory has considered the core problems in the legal and political systems, resulting in a discourse on the inherent inequalities of these systems that favor men over women. Therefore this discussion will consider two key areas of feminist theory which are; equality of rights; and the equality in the law. In order to understand the contributions that feminism has made to political and legal theory the inequalities and injustices that feminists are aiming to eliminate must be considered. The main area of feminist theory that this discussion will consider is liberalist and Western feminism; however it is important to note that there are non-liberalist and Eastern theories of feminism but to explore these feminisms is beyond the scope of this essay. This essay will discuss the theory provided by theorists such as MacKinnon, Scales and Sta nley. It will consider radical feminism and the concept of rape; and the next section will discuss the use of womens bodies either through rape law or visual norms as a way to control women. It will then consider the case study of feminist theory and the blurred distinction between the public and the private in general and then consider whether the approach taken by radical feminists goes too far and reduces the accountability of feminist theory. The following section will consider an alternative approach within feminist theory to ensure that equality and accountability is brought into the theory and then the approach to legal, social and political problems such as the states approach to rape as a means of control is taken seriously. Finally this discussion will conclude in answering the title question – does radical feminism theory offer an explanation and solution to womens inherent inequality in the political and legal systems, in areas such as rape? Feminist Theory: MacKinnon approaches feminism from a standpoint that the laws that evoke equality between men and women are not enough, because they rely on the sameness principle between men and women and tries to compensate women by saying that men and women should be treated the same. However this is not enough because of the physical and biological differences which causes a problem, because the social construction of these differences that have caused an inherent inequality between men and women in the current social, cultural, political and legal system. Mackinnon also indicates the current theoretical approaches to equality and rights are not sufficient enough because they fail to recognize that the legal and judicial system is entrenched in a male domination. Hence trying to make women the same as men, rather than recognizing that men and women are different but should have basic rights that protect this difference. MacKinnon also supports leveling the playing field by giving women advantage s over men in order to counter the male dominated system. In short MacKinnon argues that the creating of laws to make women equal to men will not compete with the inherent inequalities in Western legal systems, in fact these laws will entrench the inequalities further and support the power men have in society. Scales also endorses the problems with the inherent social inequalities between men and women. She therefore sets forth the inequality approach in order to combat the structural injustices that face women in the legal system. The central area that Scales explores is the notion of stereotypes which illustrate the structural inequalities between men and women. One such set of stereotypes are the images of the breadwinner and the housewife – the breadwinner, traditionally, is the husband who can successfully have a career and a family because he is not the primary carer. On the other hand, the wife stays at home and commits to childrearing and domestic duties, she can be in employment but not have a successful career because of the responsibilities she has at home. Hence this results in a scenario akin to the case of Phillips v Martin Marietta Corp â€Å"where the company hired males with preschool-aged children but would not hire women in that category†. The other key factor of the inequality approach in addition to recognizing that there are inherent structural differences between men women, it also recognizes the extent of injustice that the system affords to women. Scales takes MacKinnons basic theory and expands it into an approach that can be adopted into legal theory and thinking in order to eliminate the structural inequalities between men and women in the legal system. Therefore making equality more achievable for women as well as leveling the playing field for women by balancing out the inherent power men have over women in the legal system. If one also considers the work of Stanley who argues that the academics of feminist theory s hould be made accountable and not fall foul of academic standards or just use the mainstream methods that are inherently biased. This form of accountable methodology will create a serious and challenging feminist theory of politics and law, which will not be scrutinized as zealous ranting or settling for the biased methods of the male hierarchy: The intellectual location from which debates and arguments are assembled and presented constitutes a point of view – and the point of view critic is inevitably different from that of the proponent†¦ Recognizing this is important, because a point of view is both unavoidable and also indicates the existence of perspective: a particular way of seeing which highlights and brings into focus some thing as salient. Therefore as Stanley points out it is not only important to create a distinct feminist theory that is based upon a methodology that is accountable and not a part of the male hierarchy, as this is the only way to ensure that a feminist theory that will ensure substantive equality. Radical Feminisms Approach to the Body and Men: The general approach of radical feminism to rape is that it is a form of control and the approach of the justice system to rape and the victimization of the victim when testifying. The key factor that radical feminists argue is that this is indicative of an unequal society, where rape and other factors of male violence are examples of re-enforcing the patriarchal system. Rich argues that rape and violence against women are central to the control of women and their bodies, especially when the advancement of women in the public sphere is de-stabilizing this power base: Patriarchy is†¦ a familial-social, ideological, political system in which men – by force, direct pressure or through ritual, law and language, customs, etiquette, education, and division of labour, determine what part women shall or shall not play, and in which the female is everywhere subsumed under the male. It does not necessarily imply that no woman has power, or all women in a given culture may not have certain powers. When considering other feminist theories there is an indicator that there is inherent discrimination in the legal, social and political system. Helena Kennedy in her expose of the English legal systems approach to women in rape trials seems to re-enforce this notion, where a respectable women, i.e. subservient wife or vulnerable career woman can be raped but the aggressive, assertive, sexually active woman will be exposed and not be seen as a victim: A no may be taken forgranted when a respectable woman is attacked by a total stranger in a dimly lit s treet, but since a vast majority of rapes are committed by men known to the victim, consent in rape trails has always been an issue that makes men nervous†¦ Getting women to submit is an acceptable part of the sexual game plan†¦ That women who dressed sexily were contributory negligent or that women who did not want sex just had to keep their legs shut. Therefore the inherent discrimination pervades even violent crime against women, which has been also the case in respect to domestic violence where the justice system would shrug it off as private disputes. The problem with radical feminism is not its findings but the lack to use acceptable academic research from an objective method; it does in fact portray the reality of inequality and control. The action of rape is not about sex but control and power and the more that women threaten the patriarchal system the approach to rape and domestic violence seems to be dismissed; unless the victim falls inline with the ideal picture of a good girl. Campaigning in recent years have brought these problems to the forefront but there are problems with the attitudes of police to rape victims that may not have the purest sexual background then there is little action taken. This is closely tied to the approach of modern media and its onslaught of enslaving women to body image and the perfect Hollyw ood body, as well as the slow progress in respect to sexual harassment in the workplace, i.e. all are tied to patriarchal control of women. There is a problem with academics and policy makers approach to radical feminist theory is that it is considered to ignore the traditional approaches to academic research and theory; therefore as Stanley suggests there needs to be an accountable approach to feminist theory, which will be discussed later in this discussion. The following sections will investigate how the theory of radical feminism that pressure and control of patriarchy over women can be seen as inextricably tied to womens sexuality. Feminist Theory and Womens Bodies: Carla Rice states that [w]henever we as women look at ourselves through the lens of culture, we†¦ end up engaged in a war with our bodies, one that we cannot win. Society has inhibited our bodies and we have absorbed into our skin and bones (1999, 317) Rice introduces an interesting connection between womens bodies and culture; however the modern restraints on women and the body are not new, i.e. history has restrained the body in differing ways. The modern restraint is the attaining the body of the supermodel and not looking older than thirty years old; whereas in history it was being the chaste and innocent daughter and then the dutiful wife and nurturing mother. After the 1960s and the civil rights movements women became a dominating force of change in the workplace and educational arenas, no longer did women have to get married after high school and start a family; rather the avenues of higher education and careers beckoned women from this form of dominance in culture. In order to remedy these advertisements no longer held the 1950s perfect mother image; rather it was replaced by underfed models, such as Twiggy. This escalated to the modern era of fighting natural processes of aging and the hatred of differing body shapes. This has led to women starving themselves, damaging their body by binging and purging, paying thousands of dollars to have their skin stretched, fat pumped and bones broken and replaced. The modern era has heralded freedom in the sense of the mind; however culture has enslaved women using their body again, i.e. the reproductive functions were the prison of the past, superficial beauty is the prison of today. This imprisoning of the mind by using the body is a very old weapon used by the dominating male hierarchical system in fear that women can no longer be so easily controlled. If one considers cultures, such as the Middle East, being too fat or having a big nose is not a thing of consequence; because women are still imprisoned by their reproductive functions. The male dominated system of the West has been forced to alter cultural images and notions to further dominate women; therefore culture has had to alter by forcing women into a new box, i.e. an underfed, tall, big busted woman. The war waged on womens bodies is first a conflict over shape and size, over the terrain of our bodies, played in a deeply entrenched cultural taboos and a powerful dictate against women taking up space and claiming room of our own. This statement of Rices sums up the conflict between the advancement of women and the restraints constructed by the male dominated culture, which has to adapt to the advancement of women in the late 20th and 21st Century. Rice is correct in her evaluation of the male dominated culture adapting to imprison women from declaring their own rights and space. Case Study – Women in the Public Private Spheres: â€Å"Occupational segregation is being reproduced by cyclical practices which are the outcome of past conventions regarding proper relations between the sexes†¦ Occupational segregation is itself a source of stability and conventional gender identities will be reinforced by work in sex-typed occupations. The orthodox division of labour between men and women in the public and private spheres will also be reaffirmed by jobs that offer the opportunity to combine domestic – with paid work – that is, flexible conditions of working, part-time hours and so on†. The situation of creating the level playing field has not been achieved by legal policies of equal opportunities, because the higher paid jobs usually require a large amount of commitment and inflexible working hours. This makes it very hard for mothers to enter these professions. In the case of mothers the barrier to higher employment in the professions of law, accountancy, the stock market and business is the hours are not always nine to five; because a crisis or a client may need advice at anytime. Therefore women in these professions are usually kept to the lower levels, because the fact that they may have a family will impede the commitment these employers expect from a partner or CEO. This is not necessarily the case with the actual possible employees, because the traditional role of mother and housewife is no longer the key driver for the identity of women. It is this perception that is prevalent within liberalist democracies where the structure is entrenched with male dominat ed thinking. Therefore it is this mode of thinking that needs to be changed, which means that the adoption of policies that relay equal-opportunities is not enough. This has been emphasized through the theory of thinkers, such as MacKinnon and Kymlicka. Both these thinkers advise that rights need to be afforded to disadvantaged groups that ensure that the balance the playing field against the dominant group(s) in society. Therefore this introduces policies such as quotas, whereby a certain percentage of women and other disadvantage groups must be represented at all levels of employment. For example within political parties throughout Europe and in certain sectors of Canada a quota system is used, in order to get a representative amount of women into politics. However this has been rejected by the UK and certain sectors of Canadian polity as reverse discrimination. Rejecting the quota systems and labelling them as reverse discrimination illustrates how the current political and legal structures are only playing lip-service to the principles of equal opportunity and anti-discrimination. Institutions of business and government in the who argue against so-called reverse discrimination have failed to recognize that women are more than their traditional role of housewife and mother, because their entrenchment in traditional liberal theory views the labour market as supply and demand; where traditionally the largest supply of cheap labour is found to be women, whereby this labour is traditionally unskilled or related to the caring and domestic sectors. However in the recent years the number of women university graduates has rapidly increased, therefore provides a wealth of skilled female labour. The number of women in the skilled sectors has increased, but the higher one gets in the hierarchy there are fewer women, because of the concept of the glass ceiling for women. This barrier is not recognized in the institutions by equal opportunity policy or within the law be cause it is so entrenched into the social structure of the present legal and political system that is invisible, hence being called the glass ceiling. Feminism has provided a discourse that has gone farther than just making women equal to men, because in making the law gender-blind it fails to recognize the inherent power of men over women in the legal system, as well as the inherent structural inequalities. Not all feminists take the approach of MacKinnon and Scales, however their theories do recognize that there is a structural inequality of power between men and women. There is definitely a feminist political and legal theory which has recognized the structural inequalities between men and women and has tried to eliminate these inequalities through various different approaches. However feminism has provided a very important analysis of the legal system and theory by recognizing that power is inherent in the ruling group; where the only way to balance this power is to identify and eliminate the inequalities that afford the ruling group power. This is also applicable to class, caste and race inequalities and if an approach can be made in legal theory to ensure that there is a redistribution of historical burdens and benefits to disadvantaged classes then there would be an effective law of equality. Therefore feminism has provided a new dimension to liberalist legal theory is; a re-evalu ation of its structure; and a consideration of its inherent power and inequalities. This argument ties closely into the arguments presented by Stanley. Stanley argues that there is a need for accountable feminist methodology to ensure that this feminist theory is challenging the academic norms; as well as freestanding as an academic school of knowledge. Alternative Approach Necessary for Equality and Reduce Violence against Women: Nozicks Entitlement Theory Inequality is a reality for women at all levels of life, in the home, in the labor market and as a citizen of the state. The laws of liberal democratic states have set up value neutral laws that are based in an androgynous view of the sexes; however this is not the reality of situation, because the state, family and labor market is based on systemic discrimination of women, i.e. men have created the system and have inherently based the position of women, at best as second class citizens and at worst as the property of men. This has made the theory of re-distribution key to creating equality economically, socially and politically for women. Therefore this discussion will consider the theories of re-distribution and then apply them to womens social and political situations, which then should cause changes in womens social image and therefore create a situation of equality in the family. It will do this by considering Nozicks entitlement theory and adapt it in respect to feminism to cre ate an inherently indiscriminate state and a more objective approach by the justice system to rape. The core thinking of Nozick is the entitlement theory whereby there are three principles which are; the transfer principle; the acquisition principle; and the rectification principle. It must be stressed that Nozicks liberalism is entrenched in the theory of natural and core rights as set out originally be Locke. Therefore all men are created equally as derived from the state of nature but in order to create a civil society men contracted for a just system of governance with essential human rights. This is the traditional theory of the relationship between the market and the state; however this value-neutral approach fails to create equality for women. The problem of inherent inequality is because such a theory based on the free market would view re-distributive actions by the government as unjust. The main problem for this thinking is the original premise whereby Nozick assumes all p eople began as equals, because the present Western society has been created primarily by white men, therefore for there to be equality. Inequalities within the home and views on womens sexuality have been the focus for theorists that emphasize the need for a level playing field. However, on the other hand, the focus on labour market inequalities arguably may be deteriorating within the UK, due to the introduction of legislation from the early seventies to the nineties, this legislation; whereby two of the key concepts were equal pay for equal jobs and the freedom from discrimination regardless of race, religion, gender or creed. For women there was also the introduction of maternity rights, making it impossible to dismiss women or not hire women solely on the grounds of pregnancy (actual or future). This has been strengthened in the last few years with carers leave for children under five and the introduction of flexible working for parents. Therefore the current legal atmosphere promotes equality in the workplace, especially between the genders. The law in general follows from the Human Rights Act 1998; however thes e equal rights are based on treating men and women the same and do not combat the inequities that are inherent in the system, which are illustrated by the fact that there are problems with sexual harassment and the prosecution of such acts. In fact in some jurisdictions such as Canada there was no legal action of sexual harassment until 1989 with the case of Janzen v Platy Enterprises. If there are problems in defining and prosecuting sexual harassment because of the traditional views of women this illustrates the problem with the Therefore it is necessary for this systemic discrimination to be tackled by re-distributive justice, which feminists such as Mackinnon purport. Therefore inequality is the key term that needs to be discussed when contemplating the validity of re-distributing resources. Re-distribution can be done by either handing out state benefits of money, housing or material items or by providing more opportunities to those that are in disadvantaged positions. Nozick and Rawls are examples of two extremes in liberalist thought; Nozick represents the true laissez-faire liberals whereby redistribution is against equal opportunities and the only way to present a just government is to follow free-market principles. Rawls, on the other hand, argues that re-distribution can be fair as long as it is just, but would not suggest quota systems or the socialist democratic state of the Scandinavian nations. This section will end by comparing the two theorists. There are other theorists such as Kymlicka who argue that re-distribution is the only manner of ensuring that inherent inequalities are eradicated in the political system. Such lines of argume nts come from feminist thinkers, such as MacKinnon. Therefore this approach would tackle rape and the current approach of the court as an example of this inherent inequality, ensuring that rape is treated seriously and a matter under an objective court rather than a court that is biased against women, using their sexual backgrounds against them when all there should be is a question of consent. Accountability: Stanleys accountable feminist knowledge and how this approach might address methodical problems of gender, these are the problems that radical feminism hold and many ward of unwarranted ranting, rather than a theoretical argument. Gender is not an a priori characteristic of social life or of people or of the content of documents; it is not in these as a by definition component of them, but instead a construction, one capable of being construed differently in different times and places, by different commentators, using different (or in deed the same) evidences. Stanleys approach to feminist knowledge is very important because it sheds the inherent methodologies of society, which are entrenched with biases of the male dominated society. In addition Stanley argues that gender is not an a priori characteristic rather it is the construction of society and dominated by male dominated methodologies, i.e. ones sex refers to the simple a priori characteristic whether one is male or female; whereas gender is the construction of how this sex should function in society, such as the Victorian and 1950s image of the male (husband) is the breadwinner and the female (wife) is the nurturer and housewife. This is a very important distinction because for too long have all academic disciplines mistaken gender and ones sex for one in the same thing. What Stanley is proposing will take a closer look at how gender is constructed and whether a feminist methodology will ensure that equality and substantive justice will be meted out fairly. One such example is the use of quantitative and hard scientific methods; whereby the only manner to ensure equality is from a value neutral approach, i.e. men and women are considered androgynous and without sex; therefore creating a system of equality. On the other hand, a more modern approach denies this value neutral approach as an example of inherently sexist methodology because it does not combat the differences between the sexes; as well as t he value neutral approach being steeped in gender stereotypes that does not truly combat the male dominated academic biases of methodology. Stanley uses the work of Rich to create and exposition of this approach and focuses on the differences in perspective, i.e. no scientific method can truly be value neutral as they are being conducted by humans and humans are inherently biased: The intellectual location from which debates and arguments are assembled and presented constitutes a point of view – and the point of view critic is inevitably different from that of the proponent†¦ Recognizing this is important, because a point of view is both unavoidable and also indicates the existence of perspective: a particular way of seeing which highlights and brings into focus some thing as salient. Stanley, therefore, proposes that in order to combat these biased perspectives, where the male dominated perspective is inherent in the societal structure, there needs to an accountable feminist methodology that will provide a feminist perspective that will provide a realistic and challenging opponent to the inherent male dominated perspective. Accountability is the key because it allows for the methodology to be considered as an equal to the current academic methodologies, without accountability it will be dismissed as mere zealous ranting as opposed to a new academic method. As Stanley argues: A real debate about feminist methodology has not yet happened†¦ in particular because of the use of binaries†¦ What is needed now is an actual, real, debate, involving an exchange of ideas and the thoughtful interrogation of alternative approaches. Conclusion: At the moment because the state and economic situation is only playing lip service to equality this re-enforces the inequality in the family, work and justice system where the good girl gets justice the wife who is not only a career women, but also a cleaner, caretaker, nanny and a personal servant to her husband. Therefore the argument of radical feminism is not too far from the truth; however its methods and accountability raises questions and it gets regarded as biased and un-objective. In order for this attitude in society to change feminist theory needs to be incorporated in the state and the economy further, with re-distributive justice; the reason why feminist theorists have only been partially successful is that either the theory has no accountable basis or it is falling prey to mainstream academic methods. In order to do this feminist theory must incorporate an accountable feminist methodology, in order for feminist theory to be held as a valid theory of the state and econom ics with valid aims to create equality through realistic systemic change. By bringing true systemic change it will cause a change in social views and policy, which will bring true equality to the family home, womens sexuality and in the workplace and most importantly in the justice system for victims of rape .

Answering Children’s Questions

All the children are very curious and they always ask a lot of questions because they want to know a lot of things. â€Å"Where does water come from? â€Å", â€Å"why is the sky blue? † and â€Å"what is infinity? † are among the questions that parents struggle to answer for their children. Another query that has tripped up mothers and fathers for generations is, â€Å"where do babies come from? † Most parents are unable to give a correct answer to the basic questions from children about the planet, outer space and the human body. Some of them say that â€Å"babies are delivered by storks†, others – that â€Å"babies are found under gooseberry bushes†. Also parents find moral questions about God and religion hard to answer. I think that every parent should follow some principles answering children’s questions, and the first of these principles is â€Å"Never to lie†. Because children are very quick-witted and they may think so â€Å"If you found me under a gooseberry bush it means that someone had left me there†¦ and who is this someone? † It would me much more difficult to answer. The second thing is that we all must learn till we live. And if we don’t know something it’s never late to learn. So if a child asks â€Å"What is a black hole† or something like that, it would be appropriate to say â€Å"Let's look that up in the encyclopedia. † So we can show the child the way he can learn things and encourage him to seek response through authority in the future. One more thing we can do is encourage brainstorming, or consideration of alternative explanations. For example, if a child asks â€Å"Why are all the people in Holland so tall? , the parent can answer â€Å"Let's brainstorm some possible answers. Maybe its genetics, or maybe its diet, or maybe everybody in Holland wears elevator shoes, or †¦ etc. † And then the child and his parent can decide which answer is the right one. We should never avoid answering the child’s question saying â€Å"I don’t know† because the child has nobody except his pare nt to ask. Answering children’s question gives us an opportunity to revive the child in ourselves, awake our imagination and help the little one to understand the world better.

Reflection of Five Minds for the Future

Reflection of Five Minds for the Future The concepts and arguments about Gardner’s five minds enriched me a lot, and made me think further about the capabilities and skills people should equipped with to handle the new world in the future individually and cooperatively. As a master student, I feel that subjects in commerce will cultivate my cognition and interpersonal skills by developing disciplined, synthesizing, creating, respectful, and ethical minds.In a few years time, when I become a business professional, I think those minds are still important to me in order to make bigger achievements. Disciplined mind Disciplined mind means a continuous process of improving one’s skills. No matter what knowledge I have captured now, there are still many unknown areas for me to explore. However, in retrospect, I always thought what I have been told was exactly what I need to learn. And now I figure out that learning is not merely receiving, but is the continuous process of sel f-education, self-discovery and self-reflection.The subjects in commerce provide opportunities for me to do further research, to find out the solutions to the issues and get feedback from myself and others, which cultivates my habit of investigating the ideas in the long run. Synthesizing mind Gardner (2008, p3) defined that synthesizing mind is a process of collecting, evaluating and combining distinguished information. As a student, during in-class discussions and exams, I have been given many chances to perfect my synthesizing mind.When preparing exams, I will synthesize all the information, ideas, and feelings from separate lectures and combine them to one mind map, demonstrating their inter-relationships. After doing like that, I will have further understandings of the subjects and could put those abstract theories into practice. The group project also encourages me to absorb different views when looking at one problem, and then integrate all together into one idea, which becom e the main research direction. For an informed business professional, a synthesizing mind is necessary for them to make the most appropriate decision.Arming with synthesizing mind, they attempt to consider all the horizontal and vertical information before making final decision. Horizontal information means new ideas from other colleagues and knowledge gain from other domains, and vertical information includes the lessons learnt from their past experiences, knowledge about their current circumstances and also new dilemmas they may meet in the coming situations. Moreover, the capability of generating well-informed strategies will lead business professional to higher level in their career, such as manager or leader level.Creating mind As argued by Gardner (2008, p3), individuals need to think creatively to break new world, or we will be left behind by the overwhelming development of technology. I cannot agree more to his argument because the situations where some people have been â₠¬Å"controlled† by computers and internets have arisen. For example, individuals nowadays become more dependent on the ideas and information provided on the internet, which lead them to think superficially and conservatively.The education method of MCom overcomes the drawbacks of traditional teaching process in terms of encouraging students to think out of the box and to look at one problem from different viewpoints. Creativity is not always welcomed, especially in the domains stated by Gardner (2008, p7), such as accounting, law and engineering. Taking accounting as an example, lots of accounting policies have been used for years and have been a stereotype to all the firms. Major innovation of the accounting policy will rarely happen; however, minor changes will easily occur.It is necessary for them to adapt to the small changes and make suitable decision based on the updated policy rather than follow the old ways blindly. Respectful and ethical mind Living under the multicult ural environment, individuals are supposed to appreciate others’ culture, understand and pardon others’ behavior and build common trust. And we citizens shall do whatever a responsible person will do in our role, standing in our view. As a master student here, I may have some pportunities to work with people from different nations. If I want to be respected by others, I need to welcome and understand them and show my respect sincerely. A respectful mind is vital for a business professional in dealing with relationships between colleagues, customers and friends. When facing a problem, the person who refuses to listen to others’ opinions but insist on his or her own thought will make the problem more complex and finally poison the workplace, and no one are likely to work with this kind of person any more.As the world becoming globalized, people who can appreciate different arguments, cultures and behaviors will adjust themselves well to the new world. In order to enjoy decent life in the new world, businessmen should not act selfishly, rather, they are supposed to have ethical mind, thinking in a way of making win-win decisions to benefit our society as well as their business. Bibliography Gardner, H. 2008, Five Minds for the Future, Harvard Business Press, Boston, Massachusetts

Priming Of Social Attitudes The WritePass Journal

Priming Of Social Attitudes Abstract Priming Of Social Attitudes Abstract IntroductionMethodParticipantsMaterialsDesign Procedure ResultsDiscussion ReferencesRelated Abstract Previous research has indicated that social behaviour can be automatically activated when primed by traits (Higgins, Rholes Jones, 1977). The present study investigated whether participants are more like to interrupt an experimenter and unseen confederate when primed by words semantically associated with rudeness, compared with positive and neutral words. It represented a replication of the Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment (1996) with one alteration; the total number of interruptions rather than time taken to interrupt was measured. 54 undergraduate students aged between 19 and 25 participated in a between-subjects experiment, and were randomly assigned to one of three experimental levels. Participants were asked to complete a Scrambled Sentence Task containing either rude, polite or neutral words. In order to indicate their completion, participants had to interrupt the conversation of the experimenter. As hypothesised, particpants allocated to the rude condition were significantl y more likely to interrupt the experimenter than those in the neutral or polite conditions. Introduction The extent to which one has intentional control over their own thoughts and behaviours has formed the basis of much research in the field of social psychology. During the 1970’s the distinction between automatic and conscious thought processes emerged, and has became the focus of much attention (Bargh, 1989). Research concentrating on social cognition and attitude formation has documented that many phenomena are unintentional or automatic in nature. Stereotypes, for example, can be automatically elicited merely by the presense of physical features commonly associated with the stereotyped group. Similarly, the presense of an ‘attitude object’ can automatically elicit an attitude, which in turn exerts influence on behaviour (Bargh, Chen Burrows, 1996). Both are examples of priming, which refers to the effect observed when exposure to a certain stimulus influences responses to a second stimulus. In social psychology, priming can be understood in terms of the tendenc y for recent information to influence subsequent thoughts. An early example of this came from Higgins, Rholes and Jones (1977). In this research, particpants read a passage involving a man attempting certain ambitious physical feats. Prior to this, particpants were told they were particpating in a memory task, and were given a list of attributes to read. Half of the particpants were ‘positvely primed’ and given words such as ‘adventurous’ and ‘brave’. The other half were ‘negatively primed’ and given words such as ‘foolish’ and ‘reckless’. After reading the passage, particpants were asked to give their impressions of the man in the story. Those who had been positively primed formed more positive impressions of the man in the passage than those who had been negatively primed. Forgas and Bower (1987) looked at the effect of priming on how people judge information about others. Participants were assigned to one of two conditions. In the first condition, participants were given information that primed a happy mood. In the second, particpants were given information to prime a sad mood. Participants in both conditions were then given identical person descriptions to read. They found that those who had been primed to experience a happy mood formed more positive impressions of the people in the person descriptions than those primed to experience a sad mood. An experiment by Bargh, Chen and Burrows (1996; exp2) demonstrated that priming influences behaviour, investigating the behavioural consequence of automatic stereotype activation based on the premise that a typical stereotypical view of the elderly concerns slowness. Participants were presented with scrambled sentences containing words that related to elderly stereotypes, or sentences containing neutral words. Importantly, the authors ensured that none of the words in the ‘elderly’ condition were directly related to slowness. This ensured that any observed behaviour change was attributable to the stereotype of elderly being activated (and the associated assumptions of slowness) rather than focusing attention on the single trait of being slow. Following this, particpants were asked to leave the room, and were timed walking down a hallway to return to the waiting area, to test whether priming participants with the concept of elderly would automatically and unconsciously ch ange their behaviour to emulate the elderly. As predicted, participants who were primed with the stereotypical information took longer to walk down the hallway than those who received the neutral information. Carver, Ganellen, Froming and Chambers (1983) demonstrated the priming effect of aggression on particpant’s subsequent behaviour. Participants were divided into two conditions and given scrambled sentences containing either aggressive or neutral concepts, diguised as part of a seemingly unrelated study. They were then asked to participate in an experiment of human learning where particpants were able to punish another participant (actually a confederate) by administering electric shocks for incorrect responses. Those in the aggressive condition administered stronger shocks than those in the control condition. The studies discussed thus far have indicated that priming can influence both perceptions and behaviour. From this premise, Bargh et al. (1996, exp 1) investigated whether this effect overrode the typical processes one uses in everyday life, such as social judgement. In this experiment, 34 participants were informed that they were taking part in a test of language ability, and presented with a scrambled sentence test. They were randomly assigned to one of three conditions priming conditions, rude, polite and neutral. Participants were asked to complete the task individually, then notify the experimenter in another room. When the participant entered the second room, they found the experimenter in conversation with a second participant (a confederate). The critical outcome measure of the study was the length of time the participant took to interupt the conversation between the experimenter and confederate. They found that those in the rude condition did interupt significantly faster th an those in the polite and neutral conditions. However, the results suffered from significant ceiling effects; 21 of the 34 participants did not interupt at all. The present study was a replication of Bargh et al.’s(1996) experiment and borrows heavily from their methodology, but with one critical difference. In an attempt to address the methodological issues caused by the strong ceiling effects observed by Bargh et al., the current experiment measured the total number of people to interupt in each condition, rather than the time taken to interupt. Based on the findings of Bargh et al., the experimental hypothesis predicted that significantly more particpants in the ‘rude’ condition would interupt the experimenter than those in the ‘polite’ and neutral conditions. Furthermore, it was predicted that there would be no significant difference in the number of participants in the polite and neutral conditons who interupted the experimenter. Method Participants A total of 54 undergraduate psychology students, 34 females and 19 males, aged between 19-25 (mean age 20.3), volunteered to participate in the experiment. Materials Each of the participants was presented with Scrambled Sentence Test which was presented as a test of language ability. Comprising 30 items, participants had to use listed words to form a grammatically correct four-word sentence as quickly as possible. There were three versions of the scrambled-sentence test: for the rude and polite conditions, 15 of the 30 items contained words that were associated with the trait in question. In the neutral condition, these 15 were replaced with neutral words. The remaining 15 items were idetical across the three conditions. Design ÃŽ ¤he design of the experiment was between subjects, and had three experimental conditions. Participants were randomly assigned to each condition. The independent variable was the condition that the participant was assigned to and had three levels;   rude, polite and neutral. The dependent variable was the number of participants who interupted the experimenter. Procedure Participants took part in the experiment one at a time. They were informed that they were to participate in a language ability study, and their consent to participate was obtained. Each participant received an envelope that contained 30 scrambled sentences, and were told the task was concerned with grammatical construction. They were asked to form a grammatically correct four-word sentence from a list of five-word scrambled sentences. Particpants were then given one of three versions of the test (rude, polite or neutral) of the scrambled-sentence test, and asked to complete it as quickly as possible. Upon completion, participants were asked to find the experimenter in a second room and notify them of their completion, in order to move on to the next experimental task. Participants was randomly assigned to each condition, to which the experimenter was blind. When the participant entered the second room, the experimenter appeared to be engaged with another unseen particpant (actually a confederate). The experimenter and confederate continued their discussion until interupted by the participant. The confederate noted which of the participants elected to interrupt. Results Table 1: Total number of participants who did/did not interrupt in each condition (polite, neutral, rude). Word Type Polite (n) Neutral (n) Rude (n) Did not interrupt 15 10 8 Interrupted 3 6 12 The dependent variable of the experiment was the total number of participants that interrupted the experimenter in each word type condition, and as can be seen from Table 1, participants in the rude condition interrupted most frequently (n = 12). Participants in the polite condition interrupted the least (n = 3). The propensity to interrupt increased across the levels of the independent variable; a higher number of participants in the neutral condition (n = 6) interrupted than in the polite group. A higher number again interrupted in the rude group. The results of this experiment were statistically analysed used a Chi-square goodness-of-fit test. This test was selected as the data was categorical, numerical and discrete. It produced a goodness-of-fit between the observed and expected values. If priming had no effect on interrupting behaviour, distribution across the conditions would be equal. The Chi-square test demonstrated whether the observed frequencies differed significantly from the expected frequencies. The result of the Chi-square was significant; participants in the rude condition were significantly more likely to interrupt the experimenter than participants in the neutral or positive condition, x2 (2, N = 54) = 7.50, p 0.5. Discussion This study examined whether priming traits (rudeness and politeness) could have an impact on social behaviour.   It was hypothesized that participants primed with rude traits would be more likely to interrupt an experimenter ostensibly engaged in a conversation with an unseen ‘participant’ than those who were primed with positive or neutral traits, and this hypothesis was fully supported by the results of the experiment. The study confirmed that people, when influenced by a rude prime condition, would demonstrate a negative impact on social behaviour, whilst the social behaviour of those who were influenced by a polite or neutral prime condition were unaffected. This finding supported the results of Bargh et al. (1996) despite the change to the dependent variable. This provides compelling evidence for their hypothesis regarding the automatic activation of social behaviours in the face of certain environmental features (in both cases, the rude primes). Not only does the replication confirm the original study findings, but the change in the dependent variable in the study under discussion improves on the methodological design flaw of the original. Interestingly, the present study also supported the original study finding of no significant difference in interrupting behaviour between the polite and neutral groups. This indicates that it is rude behaviour that is most likely to be automatically activated. Priming a participant with polite trait information does not appear to increase an individual’s politeness, or a significant difference between the neutral and polite levels would be observed. This is somewhat at odds with previous resea rch which indicated a bias towards increased postivity via priming (Higgins et al., 1977; Forgas Bower, 1987). However, these studies looked at the effect of priming on judgement, and not on behaviour. If the result of the present study is compared with Carver et al. (1983) study of negative priming and electric shock administration, both show an increased bias towards the propensity to prime negative behaviour. Although the change in the dependent variable from time to interrupt to presence of interrupting behaviour resolved the issue of ceiling effects described by Bargh et al. (1996), whilst producing a similar result, some detail was lost. Moving from a numerical scale (time) to a categorical measurement meant that the choice of statistical analysis available was limited. A future replication might involve measuring the total number of participants that interrupted, and the time taken among those that did. A second factor that should be considered is the possibility that those in the rude condition were simply a ruder group of participants and were more likely to interrupt despite the priming effect. To control for this possibility, a future replication could incorporate a personality questionnaire to control for propensity towards rude behaviour. The current study was a replication of Baugh et al.’s (1996) experiment 2. To resolve the original study’s problem of ceiling effects, a change was made to the dependent variable; instead of measuring the time taken to interrupt, the total number of those interrupting in each condition was measured. The results supported the finding of the original study, presentation of the rudeness trait primes subsequent rude behaviour; therefore social behaviour can be automatically triggered without conscious thought. References Bargh, J. A. (1989). Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In J. S. Uleman, J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended Thought (pp. 3-51). New York: Guilford Press. Bargh, J.A., Chen, M., Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 230-244. Carver, C., Ganellen, R., Froming, W., Chambers, W. (1983). Modelling: an analysis in terms of c ategory accessibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 403–421. Forgas, J. P. Moylan, S. J. (1987). After the movies: The effects of transient mood states on social judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 478-489. Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., Jones, C. R. (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,13, 141–154.

Socrates Versus Athenian Democracy essays

Socrates Versus Athenian Democracy essays Socrates and the Athenian democracy of the fifth century BC are very well known to us today. The first, a great Greek philosopher who profoundly affected Western philosophy. The second, a great idea and form of government of the ancient city-state of Athens. These two would come to a clash, resulting the condemnation and death of Socrates, after trial. Socrates' conflict with the Athenian democracy was theoretically reconcilable, but not practicable. His beliefs and the way he supports them, seem to be ideal. This though does not necessarily mean that they are applicable in the Athenian society of that time. This I will try to prove in the continuation. It is important to understand first the norms of conventional, good Athenian citizenship and what were exactly the beliefs and practices of Socrates. The most important aspect of Athenian democracy is the fact that "power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people"(Thucydides, II.37). Decisions are made after being discussed and voted. Each citizen's vote stands equal, regardless of occupation or economic status. This is (according to the Athenians) the fairest political system, which actually helps the city-state improve and develop. The majority of the citizens are satisfied, since decisions are made based on their votes, and those who don't agree could present their arguments and try to persuade others. It is the duty and responsibility of the Athenian citizen to be interested and to participate in public affairs since they are considered to be most important for the general good. Citizens have the freedom to express their opinions, elaborate on them, and to listen to what others have to say. This gives them the chance to contradict what they believe is not right and the opportunity to hear perhaps a better suggestion. It can be concluded, therefore, that they are able to improve themselves by developing their ideas, and hearing propositions, which perhaps they...

Personal essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Personal - Essay Example However, the two terms are quite distinctive from one another in the context of a number of differences such as the differences on the level of education and knowledge, responsibilities, and professional advancement. In terms of education, the difference between LPN and RN is quite evident - it is precisely described as the difference between diploma and degree in the respective manner. Now transitioning from LPN to RN definitely has better opportunities for career advancement along with added responsibilities. The latter is very significant that can be identified with the concept of nursing as a lifelong learning; because, â€Å"Nursing is a dynamic, continually evolving discipline that employs critical thinking to integrate increasingly complex knowledge, skills, and technologies and client care activities into evidence-based nursing practice.† (Harrington and Terry, 2009, p. 4) This paper briefly discusses the issue of transition from licensed practical nurses to registered nurses in conjunction with a number of aspects related to both terminologies as well as the transition phase. It also looks into significant issues relevant to LPN-RN transition including the analysis and evaluation of personal goals and expectations, educational as well as professional outlook, and the issue of career transformation with added professional and personal responsibility. With regard to choosing RN programs over LPN programs, licensed practical nurses are now more focused on continuing their education and becoming RNs. Apart from educational improvement and professional enhancement in general, the decision also includes the relevance of personal choices, goals and expectations in particular. With the difference of educational curriculum and learning styles, transition from LPN to RN also involves the aspect of role development. That is to say, the transition from practical nursing education to higher

Typhoid fever in children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Typhoid fever in children - Essay Example Moreover, typhoid fever usually hits children and young adults aged 5-19 years, although the age range can be much younger to much older (Bhan et al., 2005). Paratyphoid fever, which is a related disease, accounts for 5.4 million sick people worldwide (Crump & Mintz, 2010). Thus, one can see the severity of typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever and the fatalities that they bring. Unless, therefore, there are measures to prevent typhoid fever, there is no way that the situation can be improved. 2.0 HISTORY The Salmonella enteric bacterium has evolved beginning 50,000 years ago and has been known for its â€Å"remarkable mechanisms for persistence† in the human host (Bahn et al., 2005). By the early 20th century in Europe and the United States, the disease has greatly declined because of the improvement in the water supply as well as in the sewage systems. Nevertheless, the disease remained a serious health concern for the public. It was the introduction of chloramphenicol treatme nt that somehow made typhoid fever a manageable infection and not anymore a fatal disease. Nevertheless, in 1972, some chloramphenicol-resistant typhoid fever emerged. This was then countered with new antibiotics – ampicillin, amoxicillin and co-trimoxazole. In the 1980s and the 1990s, some new resistant strains once more emerged and this time they are resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin, amoxicillin and co-trimoxazole. The current treatment is now third-generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones, although there have also been reported decrease in susceptibility (Bahn et al. 2005). 3.0 SALMONELLA ENTERICA, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPHOID, NON TYPHOID SALMONELLAE AND S. PARATYPHI IN TERMS OF GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION Typhoid salmonellae involve the invasion of the gut mucosa located in the terminal ileum either through the M-cells that serve as the epithelium of all gut tissue or through the enterocytes. Through the epithelial receptor called cystic fibrosis transmembrane co nductance regulator protein, the typhoid Salmonellae adhere to the intestinal mucosa in the terminal ileum. On the other hand, non-typhoidal Salmonella leads to the invasion of the non-phagocytic epithelial cells and eventually the peripheral blood leucocytes and the lamina propia. The non-typhoidal Salmonellae then reach the intestinal lymphoid tissue, the mesenteric nodes, the thoracic duct until it causes bacteremia that infects the vital organs of the body within 24 hours. The affected parts could be the spleen, the liver, the bone marrow, as well as other parts of the reticuloendothelial system (Bhan et al., 2005). Typhoid fever is found in India, Indonesia and Vietnam, as well as in Bangladesh and Nepal. Paratyphoid fever, which is less prevalent than typhoid, occurs in India and Nepal (Bhan et al., 2005). 4.0 HOW DOES THE BACTERIA CAUSE A DISEASE? S. typhi causes the disease through the invasion of the gut mucosa in the terminal ileum. Then it enters the mucosa through the M- cells or through the enterocytes (Bhan et al., 2005). As the mucosal barrier is overcome, what follows is bacteremia. Then there is exudative inflammation in the terminal ileum and colon, thus causing diarrhea. What further takes place is interstitial inflammation and decrease